@article {xu_subsurface_2024,
	title = {Subsurface acoustic ducts in the Northern California current system},
	journal = {The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America},
	volume = {155},
	number = {3},
	year = {2024},
	month = {mar},
	pages = {1881{\textendash}1894},
	abstract = {This study investigates the subsurface sound channel or acoustic duct that appears seasonally along the U.S. Pacific Northwest coast below the surface mixed layer. The duct has a significant impact on sound propagation at mid-frequencies by trapping sound energy and reducing transmission loss within the channel. A survey of the sound-speed profiles obtained from archived mooring and glider observations reveals that the duct is more prevalent in summer to fall than in winter to spring and offshore of the shelf break than over the shelf. The occurrence of the subsurface duct is typically associated with the presence of a strong halocline and a reduced thermocline or temperature inversion. Furthermore, the duct observed over the shelf slope corresponds to a vertically sheared along-slope velocity profile, characterized by equatorward near-surface flow overlaying poleward subsurface flow. Two potential duct formation mechanisms are examined in this study, which are seasonal surface heat exchange and baroclinic advection of distinct water masses. The former mechanism regulates the formation of a downward-refracting sound-speed gradient that caps the duct near the sea surface, while the latter contributes to the formation of an upward-refracting sound-speed gradient that defines the duct{\textquoteright}s lower boundary.},
	issn = {0001-4966},
	doi = {10.1121/10.0024146},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0024146},
	author = {Xu, Guangyu and Harcourt, Ramsey R. and Tang, Dajun and Hefner, Brian T. and Thorsos, Eric I. and Mickett, John B.}
}
